Overview
Title: Esther: A Hellenistic Queen?
Author: Dr. Eran Almagor (Ben-Gurion University of the Negev)
Date: November 26, 2021
What this page contains: Verbatim transcription of the original session handout. Where the handout provided both translation and original text, the translation appears first, followed by the original in italics, item-by-item.
Handout (verbatim transcription from the linked PDF)
Power, Royal Agency, and Elite Women in the Hellenistic and Roman World
The ݮƵ Institute for Hellenistic Studies
November 26, 2021 — Eran Almagor (eranalmagor@gmail.com)
Esther: A Hellenistic Queen?
1. The Book of Esther (Masoretic Text (MT); LXX; Alpha Text (A-Text, or AT))
Paton, L. B. (1908), A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Esther (Edinburgh).
p. 60: “the book is a product of the Greek period. The only dispute is, whether it belongs to the earlier or the later part of that period”.
Bickerman, E. J. (1967), Four Strange Books of the Bible (New York).
Ego, B. (2010), “The Book of Esther: a Hellenistic Book”, Journal of Ancient Judaism 1: 279–302.
Johnson, S. R. (2005), “Novelistic Elements in Esther: Persian or Hellenistic, Jewish or Greek?”, Catholic Biblical Quarterly 67: 571–89.
Macchi, J.-D. (2005), “Le livre d'Esther: regard hellénistique sur le pouvoir et le monde perses”, հԲܱèԱ 30: 97–135.
Middlemas, J. (2019), “Dating Esther: Evaluating the Criteria for a Persian or Hellenistic Provenance” in R. Bautch & M. Lackowski (eds), On Dating Biblical Texts to the Persian Period (Tübingen), 149–68.
Stiehl, R. (1956), “Das Buch Esther”, Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 53: 4–22.
Wills, L. M. (1995), The Jewish Novel in the Ancient World (Ithaca, NY).
2. LXX Translation, The Additions
- Mordecai's dream and discovery of a plot against the king, before 1:1, Add A 1–17;
- First letter of the king, after 3:13, Add B 1–7;
- Prayers of Mordecai and Esther, after 4:17, Add C 1–30;
- Appearance of Esther before the king unsummoned, before 5:3, Add D 1–16;
- Second letter of the king, after 8:12, Add E 1–24;
- The interpretation of Mordecai's dream, after 10:3, Add F 1–11.
Moore, C. A. (1973), “On the Origins of the LXX Additions to the Book of Esther”, JBL 92: 382–93.
Moore, C. A. (1977), Daniel, Esther, and Jeremiah: The Additions (Garden City, NY).
3. LXX Translation, The Colophon
In the fourth year of the reign of Ptolemy and Cleopatra, Dositheus, who said that he was a priest, and Levitas, and Ptolemy his son, brought the foregoing letter concerning Phrourai, which they said is extant, and which Lysimachus, son of Ptolemy, one of the people of Jerusalem, had translated (Hoschander trans., slightly amended).
ἔτους τετάρτου βασιλεύοντος Πτολεμαίου καὶ Κλεοπάτρας εἰσήνεγκεν Δωσίθεος ὃς ἔφη εἶναι ἱερεὺς καὶ Λευίτης καὶ Πτολεμαῖος ὁ υἱὸς αὐτοῦ τὴν προκειμένην ἐπιστολὴν τῶν Φρουραὶ ἣν ἔφασαν εἶναι καὶ ἑρμηνευκέναι Λυσίμαχον Πτολεμαίου τῶν ἐν Ιερουσαλημ.
Bickerman, E. J. (1944), “The Colophon of the Greek Book of Esther”, JBL 63: 339–62.
4. Esther's Prayer (~ MT 4:16) — Esther Add C (Moore trans., amended)
12. Queen Esther was terrified and sought refuge in the Lord.
12. καὶ Εσθηρ ἡ βασίλισσα κατέφυγεν ἐπὶ τὸν κύριον ἐν ἀγῶνι θανάτου κατειλημμένη,
13. She took off her stately robes and put on clothes appropriate for distress and mourning, and instead of extravagant perfumes she covered her head with ashes and dung. She debased her body completely, and she covered with her disheveled hair those parts which she ordinarily loved to adorn.
13. καὶ ἀφελομένη τὰ ἱμάτια τῆς δόξης αὐτῆς ἐνεδύσατο ἱμάτια στενοχωρίας καὶ πένθους καὶ ἀντὶ τῶν ὑπερηφάνων ἡδυσμάτων σποδοῦ καὶ κοπριῶν ἔπλησεν τὴν κεφαλὴν αὐτῆς καὶ τὸ σῶμα αὐτῆς ἐταπείνωσεν σφόδρα καὶ πάντα τόπον κόσμου ἀγαλλιάματος αὐτῆς ἔπλησε στρεπτῶν τριχῶν αὐτῆς
14. she prayed to the Lord God of Israel and said: “My Lord, only you are our king! Help me who am alone and have no helper except you,
14. καὶ ἐδεῖτο κυρίου θεοῦ Ισραηλ καὶ εἶπεν· κύριέ μου ὁ βασιλεὺς ἡμῶν, σὺ εἶ μόνος· βοήθησόν μοι τῇ μόνῃ καὶ μὴ ἐχούσῃ βοηθὸν εἰ μὴ σέ,
15. for I am risking my life.
15. ὅτι κίνδυνός μου ἐν χειρί μου.
16. All my life I have heard in my acestral tribe that you, Lord, chose Israel from all the nations, and our fathers from all their predecessors, for a perpetual inheritance; and you treated them just as you had promised.
16. ἐγὼ ἤκουον ἐκ γενετῆς μου ἐν φυλῇ πατριᾶς μου ὅτι σύ, κύριε, ἔλαβες τὸν Ισραηλ ἐκ πάντων τῶν ἐθνῶν καὶ τοὺς πατέρας ἡμῶν ἐκ πάντων τῶν προγόνων αὐτῶν εἰς κληρονομίαν αἰώνιον καὶ ἐποίησας αὐτοῖς ὅσα ἐλάλησας.
17. But now we have sinned against you, and you have handed us over to our enemies
17. καὶ νῦν ἡμάρτομεν ἐνώπιόν σου, καὶ παρέδωκας ἡμᾶς εἰς χεῖρας τῶν ἐχθρῶν ἡμῶν,
18. because we extolled their gods. You were in the right, Lord.
18. ἀνθ᾿ ὧν ἐδοξάσαμεν τοὺς θεοὺς αὐτῶν· δίκαιος εἶ, κύριε.
19. Nevertheless, they are not satisfied that we are in galling slavery; but they have made an agreement with their idols
19. καὶ νῦν οὐχ ἱκανώθησαν ἐν πικρασμῷ δουλείας ἡμῶν, ἀλλὰ ἔθηκαν τὰς χεῖρας αὐτῶν ἐπὶ τὰς χεῖρας τῶν εἰδώλων αὐτῶν
20. to nullify the promise you made, to blot out your inheritance, to silence the lips of those who praise you, to quench the glory of your house and altar,
20. ἐξᾶραι ὁρισμὸν στόματός σου καὶ ἀφανίσαι κληρονομίαν σου καὶ ἐμφράξαι στόμα αἰνούντων σοι καὶ σβέσαι δόξαν οἴκου σου καὶ θυσιαστήριόν σου
21. to open the mouths of the pagans for the praise of idols, and to idolize forever a mere mortal king.
21. καὶ ἀνοῖξαι στόμα ἐθνῶν εἰς ἀρετὰς ματαίων καὶ θαυμασθῆναι βασιλέα σάρκινον εἰς αἰῶνα.
22. Do not relinquish your scepter, Lord, to non-existent [gods], and do not let them laugh at our downfall. Frustrate their plot and make an example of him who started it all!
22. μὴ παραδῷς, κύριε, τὸ σκῆπτρόν σου τοῖς μὴ οὖσιν, καὶ μὴ καταγελασάτωσαν ἐν τῇ πτώσει ἡμῶν, ἀλλὰ στρέψον τὴν βουλὴν αὐτῶν ἐπ᾿ αὐτούς, τὸν δὲ ἀρξάμενον ἐφ᾿ ἡμᾶς παραδειγμάτισον.
23. Remember, Lord, make yourself known in this time of our afflictions! Give me courage, King of the gods and Lord of all governments!
23. μνήσθητι κύριε, γνώσθητι ἐν καιρῷ θλίψεως ἡμῶν καὶ ἐμὲ θάρσυνον, βασιλεῦ τῶν θεῶν καὶ πάσης ἀρχῆς ἐπικρατῶν·
24. Make me persuasive before the lion and dispose him to hate the one who fights against us so that there may be an end of him and of those agreeing with him.
24. δὸς λόγον εὔρυθμον εἰς τὸ στόμα μου ἐνώπιον τοῦ λέοντος καὶ μετάθες τὴν καρδίαν αὐτοῦ εἰς μῖσος τοῦ πολεμοῦντος ἡμᾶς εἰς συντέλειαν αὐτοῦ καὶ τῶν ὁμονοούντων αὐτῷ·
25. Rescue us by your hand and help me who am alone and have no one except you, Lord. You know everything
25. ἡμᾶς δὲ ῥῦσαι ἐν χειρί σου καὶ βοήθησόν μοι τῇ μόνῃ καὶ μὴ ἐχούσῃ εἰ μὴ σέ, κύριε. πάντων γνῶσιν ἔχεις
26. so you know that I hate the pomp of the wicked, and I loathe the bed of the uncircumcised and of any foreigner.
26. καὶ οἶδας ὅτι ἐμίσησα δόξαν ἀνόμων καὶ βδελύσσομαι κοίτην ἀπεριτμήτων καὶ παντὸς ἀλλοτρίου.
27. You know my duty: that I loathe that symbol of my exalted position which is upon my head. When I appear [at court] I loathe it like a menstruous rag. I do not wear it when I am not at court.
27. σὺ οἶδας τὴν ἀνάγκην μου, ὅτι βδελύσσομαι τὸ σημεῖον τῆς ὑπερηφανίας μου, ὅ ἐστιν ἐπὶ τῆς κεφαλῆς μου ἐν ἡμέραις ὀπτασίας μου· βδελύσσομαι αὐτὸ ὡς ῥάκος καταμηνίων καὶ οὐ φορῶ αὐτὸ ἐν ἡμέραις ἡσυχίας μου.
28. Your maid servant has not dined at Haman's table, nor have I extolled a royal party nor drunk the wine of libations.
28. καὶ οὐκ ἔφαγεν ἡ δούλη σου τράπεζαν Αμαν καὶ οὐκ ἐδόξασα συμπόσιον βασιλέως οὐδὲ ἔπιον οἶνον σπονδῶν·
29. From the day I arrived here until now, your maid servant has not delighted in anything except you, Lord, the God of Abraham.
29. καὶ οὐκ ηὐφράνθη ἡ δούλη σου ἀφ᾿ ἡμέρας μεταβολῆς μου μέχρι νῦν πλὴν ἐπὶ σοί, κύριε ὁ θεὸς Αβρααμ.
30. “God, whose might prevails over all”, hear the voice of the despairing, and save us from the hands of the wicked! And, Lord, protect me from my fears!
30. ὁ θεὸς ὁ ἰσχύων ἐπὶ πάντας, εἰσάκουσον φωνὴν ἀπηλπισμένων καὶ ῥῦσαι ἡμᾶς ἐκ χειρὸς τῶν πονηρευομένων· καὶ ῥῦσαί με ἐκ τοῦ φόβου μου.
5. Piety
OGIS 224.6–7: καὶ πρὸς τὸ θεῖ- || [ον ε]ὐσεβῶς δια[κ]εῖσθαι [Laodice III]
Ma, J. (1999), Antiochos III and the Cities of Western Asia Minor (Oxford), n. 18, 73–4: ἔπειδή ἡ βασίλισσα τὰ τε πρὸς τοὺς θεοὺς εὐσεβ[ῶς] διακεῖται
OGIS 15 [Arsinoe II, dedication of the rotunda as an offering to the Great Gods at Samothrace]
6. Duality
Carney, E. D. (2011), “Being Royal and Female in the Early Hellenistic Period,” in A. Erskine and L. Llewellyn-Jones (eds.), Creating a Hellenistic World (Swansea), 195–220 [197].
7. Gestures
3 Macc. 1.4: “When a bitter fight resulted, and matters were turning out rather in favor of Antiochus, Arsinoë went to the troops with wailing and tears, her locks all disheveled, and exhorted them to defend themselves and their children and wives bravely, promising to give them each two minas of gold if they won the battle” (γενομένης δὲ καρτερᾶς μάχης καὶ τῶν πραγμάτων μᾶλλον ἐρρωμένων τῷ Ἀντιόχῳ ἱκανῶς ἡ Ἀρσινόη ἐπιπορευσαμένη τὰς δυνάμεις παρεκάλει μετὰ οἴκτου καὶ δακρύων τοὺς πλοκάμους λελυμένη βοηθεῖν ἑαυτοῖς τε καὶ τοῖς τέκνοις καὶ γυναιξὶν θαρραλέως ἐπαγγελλομένη δώσειν νικήσασιν ἑκάστῳ δύο μνᾶς χρυσίου). Cf. Polyb. 5.83.
(Cf. Damag. Epigr. 1 = Anth. Pal. 6.277: Ἄρτεμι, τόξα λαχοῦσα καὶ ἀλκήεντας οἰστούς || σοὶ πλόκον οἰκείας τόνδε λέλοιπε κόμης || Ἀρσινόη θυόεν παρ' ἀνάκτορον ἡ Πτολεμαίου || παρθένος, ἱμερτοῦ κειραμένη πλοκάμου)
Van Oppen de Ruiter, B. F. (2015), Berenice II Euergetis: Essays in Early Hellenistic Queenship (New York), 86–7.
8. Esther’s Appearance before the King Unsummoned (~ MT 5.1–3) — Esther Add D (Moore trans., amended)
1. On the third day, when she had finished praying, she took off the clothing of a suppliant and dressed herself in splendid attire.
1. καὶ ἐγενήθη ἐν τῇ ἡμέρᾳ τῇ τρίτῃ, ὡς ἐπαύσατο προσευχομένη, ἐξεδύσατο τὰ ἱμάτια τῆς θεραπείας καὶ περιεβάλετο τὴν δόξαν αὐτῆς
2. After she had called upon the all-seeing God and savior, she, looking absolutely radiant, took two maids,
2. καὶ γενηθεῖσα ἐπιφανὴς ἐπικαλεσαμένη τὸν πάντων ἐπόπτην θεὸν καὶ σωτῆρα παρέλαβεν τὰς δύο ἅβρας
3. leaning daintily on the one,
3. καὶ τῇ μὲν μιᾷ ἐπηρείδετο ὡς τρυφερευομένη,
4. while the other followed carrying her train.
4. ἡ δὲ ἑτέρα ἐπηκολούθει κουφίζουσα τὴν ἔνδυσιν αὐτῆς,
5. She was radiant, in the prime of her beauty, and her face was assured as one who knows she is loved, but her heart was pounding with fear.
5. καὶ αὐτὴ ἐρυθριῶσα ἀκμῇ κάλλους αὐτῆς, καὶ τὸ πρόσωπον αὐτῆς ἱλαρὸν ὡς προσφιλές, ἡ δὲ καρδία αὐτῆς ἀπεστενωμένη ἀπὸ τοῦ φόβου.
6. When she had passed through all the doors, she stood before the king.
6. καὶ εἰσελθοῦσα πάσας τὰς θύρας κατέστη ἐνώπιον τοῦ βασιλέως,
He was seated on his royal throne, arrayed in all his splendid attire, all covered with gold and precious stones—a most formidable sight!
καὶ αὐτὸς ἐκάθητο ἐπὶ τοῦ θρόνου τῆς βασιλείας αὐτοῦ καὶ πᾶσαν στολὴν τῆς ἐπιφανείας αὐτοῦ ἐνεδεδύκει, ὅλος διὰ χρυσοῦ καὶ λίθων πολυτελῶν, καὶ ἦν φοβερὸς σφόδρα.
7. Raising his face, flushed with color, he looked at her in fiercest anger. The queen stumbled, turned pale and fainted, keeling over on the head of the maid who went before her.
7. καὶ ἄρας τὸ πρόσωπον αὐτοῦ πεπυρωμένον δόξῃ ἐν ἀκμῇ θυμοῦ ἔβλεψεν, καὶ ἔπεσεν ἡ βασίλισσα καὶ μετέβαλεν τὸ χρῶμα αὐτῆς ἐν ἐκλύσει καὶ κατεπέκυψεν ἐπὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν τῆς ἅβρας τῆς προπορευομένης.
8. But God changed the king's spirit to gentleness. The king leaped down from his throne in alarm and took her up in his arms until she revived. He comforted her with reassuring words,
8. καὶ μετέβαλεν ὁ θεὸς τὸ πνεῦμα τοῦ βασιλέως εἰς πραΰτητα, καὶ ἀγωνιάσας ἀνεπήδησεν ἀπὸ τοῦ θρόνου αὐτοῦ καὶ ἀνέλαβεν αὐτὴν ἐπὶ τὰς ἀγκάλας αὐτοῦ, μέχρις οὗ κατέστη, καὶ παρεκάλει αὐτὴν λόγοις εἰρηνικοῖς
9. saying to her, “What's the matter, Esther? I am your brother. Relax,
9. καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῇ τί ἐστιν, Εσθηρ ἐγὼ ὁ ἀδελφός σου, θάρσει,
10. You're not going to die! This practice applies only to our subjects. 11 Come here!”
10. οὐ μὴ ἀποθάνῃς, ὅτι κοινὸν τὸ πρόσταγμα ἡμῶν ἐστιν· 11. πόσελθε.
12. Then he raised his gold scepter and tapped her neck; he hugged her and said, “Talk to me!”
12. καὶ ἄρας τὴν χρυσῆν ῥάβδον ἐπέθηκεν ἐπὶ τὸν τράχηλον αὐτῆς καὶ ἠσπάσατο αὐτὴν καὶ εἶπεν λάλησόν μοι.
13. “My lord”, she said, “I saw you like an angel of God”, and was upset by your awesome appearance.
13. καὶ εἶπεν αὐτῷ εἶδόν σε, κύριε, ὡς ἄγγελον θεοῦ, καὶ ἐταράχθη ἡ καρδία μου ἀπὸ φόβου τῆς δόξης σου·
14. For you are wonderful, my lord, and your face is full of graciousness.”
14. ὅτι θαυμαστὸς εἶ, κύριε, καὶ τὸ πρόσωπόν σου χαρίτων μεστόν.
15. And as she spoke, she sagged with relief.
15. ἐν δὲ τῷ διαλέγεσθαι αὐτὴν ἔπεσεν ἀπὸ ἐκλύσεως αὐτῆς,
16. The king was upset, and all his court tried to reassure her.
16. καὶ ὁ βασιλεὺς ἐταράσσετο, καὶ πᾶσα ἡ θεραπεία αὐτοῦ παρεκάλει αὐτήν.
9. Sister
Ager, S. L. (2005), “Familiarity Breeds: Incest and the Ptolemaic Dynasty”, JHS 125: 1–34.
Ogden, D. (1999), Polygamy, Prostitutes, and Death: The Hellenistic Dynasties (London), 124–8, 134–7, 140–3, 146–7.
OGIS 224: [Antiochus III] “our sister queen Laodice” (τῆς ἀδελφῆς βασιλίσσης Λαοδίκης).
OGIS 99, 773: Cleopatra I as the “sister” of Ptolemy V: 99: τὴν ἀδελφὴν βασίλισσαν Κλεοπάτραν; 733: ἡ βασιλέως Πτολεμαίου ἀδελφὴ καὶ γυνή.
10. Epiphaneis
OGIS 98 (Philae): βασιλεὺς Πτολεμαῖος καὶ βασίλισσα Κλεοπά[τρα] || θεοὶ Ἐπιφανεῖς καὶ Πτολεμαῖος ὁ υἱὸς Ἀσκλη[πιῶι].
11. Transformation
Lubitch, R. (1993), “A Feminist's Look at Esther”, Judaism 42: 438–46.
Fox, M. V. (2003), “Three Esthers,” in S. White Crawford & L. J. Greenspoon (eds.), The Book of Esther in Modern Research (London), 50–60 [59]: “The Additions introduce a number of elements known from the Hellenistic romances, including explicit and extensive explorations of thoughts and feelings, the heroine's piety, female frailty, overwhelming emotions and fainting [...]”.
12. Salome Alexandra?
Ilan, T. (2001), Integrating Women into Second Temple History (Peabody, MA), 132–3: “In light of negative popular and philosophical thinking on women as potential rulers at the time, and after John Hyrcanus failed to bequeath the throne to his wife, in order for Shelamzion to succeed to the throne, some measures had to be taken, to prepare the grounds for the woman’s queenship. Are there any traces in the ancient sources that support my contention that some sort of propaganda n Shelamzion’s behalf was attempted? The thesis of this paper is that three unusual and closely related compositions – Esther, Judith and Susanna, all three named after women – could be considered as such pamphlets”.
Wilker, J. (2020), “Hasmonean women,” in E. D. Carney & S. Müller (eds.), The Routledge Companion to Women and Monarchy in the Ancient Mediterranean World (London), 222–33 [229]: “the female protagonists of signature novels such as Judith and Greek Esther cannot be read as reflecting Hasmonean queens; they feature prominent female figures, yet they are far from depicting a woman taking power permanently and legitimately”.